Thursday, July 26, 2012

final study notes



New Material Lecture notes:

 answers to some are posted on blackboard

REVIEW FOR BIO 280 FINAL

·         All questions are case studies with multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank questions following (equal amounts).
·         You should review your notes (primary study guide) including organizational charts, then review sheets, then your own tests, and lastly, last semester’s tests.
·         Practice pulling information from various parts of the course into the same question….that is what this review is to give you practice on!  This review sheet is NOT all inclusive…anything covered in the course is fair game, and may be tested.

Jonathan found out he was exposed to a Hepatitis A virus at a nearby restaurant where he recently ate.  He is informed that he needs to go to the health department immediately, and receive an injection that may protect him from getting the disease.  When he asks what the shot contains, he is told that it contains material extracted from someone else’s blood.

1.       The shot Jonathan received probably contained ____________, and it will____________.
a.       Soluble antigens, require 2 more shots to protect him from the disease
b.       Whole attenuated virus, protect him from the disease for most of the rest of his life
c.        Inactivated Hepatitis viruses, be activated only within phagocytic cells
d.       antibodies, protect him only for a matter of weeks
e.        A similar but different virus, produce memory cells that respond to both the real virus and the vaccine contents virus

2.       ALL virus types, including the virus that Jonathan has, MUST have a(n):
a.       Envelope, composed of cell wall material from the last host cell
b.       Peplomer, composed of cell membrane material from the last host cell
c.        Capsomere, composed of cell membrane material from the last host cell
d.       Capsid, composed of proteins made within the last host cell
e.        Capsule, composed of glycoproteins or polysaccharides made within the last host cell

3.       If Jonathan was infected by eating contaminated scrambled eggs, the virus was transmitted ___ , and the eggs would be the ____:
a.       Indirectly, Fomite
b.       Directly, Vector
c.        Directly, Carrier
d.       Indirectly, Vehicle
e.        Indirectly, Reservoir

4.       __________ - What molecule on an infected liver cell surface targets it for the immune system? (letters and number ok)

5.       How long (from his exposure) he will need to wait until he can be sure that he will not develop Hepatitis is determined by the:
a.       Lag time
b.       Generation time
c.        Incubation time
d.       Infection time

6.       When the virus is inside Jonathan’s body, several  level 1 defenses may protect him while in his intestines.  Which of the below is NOT one of these?
a.       Normal flora
b.       Digestive enzymes
c.        Peristalsis
d.       Bile
e.        Acids

7.       When the virus is in Jonathan’s bloodstream, which term BEST describes the viral infection?
a.       leukemia
b.       bacteremia
c.        fungemia
d.       viremia
e.        toxemia

8.       _____________________________ Which level 3 defense CELL could destroy his own infected cells?


9.       When the virus arrives at Jonathan’s liver, and enters the liver cells, which of the following level 2 defense will BEST protect him from the virus?
a.       Interferon
b.       T-cytotoxic cells using perforin and cytokines
c.        Neutralization
d.       Opsonization
e.        Phagocytosis

10.    Which of the following level 3 defenses will prevent the virus from completing the attachment phase of the life cycle?
a.       Antibodies, using neutralization
b.       T-cytotoxic cells, using granzyme
c.        Antibodies, using opsonization
d.       T-helper cells, activating phagocytic cells in the area
e.        Antibodies, using agglutination

11.    ____________________________ - Which cell type must be activated in the lymph node before either type of level 3 defense could be initiated?

12.    If antibodies are produced in response to Jonathan’s infection, the _____ part of the antibody will bind to the virus.
a.       MHC-1
b.       Fac
c.        Fab
d.       Fc
e.        MHC-2

13.    The OTHER end of the antibody binds to inflammatory cells during allergic reactions, to complement proteins during complement activation and also to phagocytic cells in what process?
_____________________ process

14.    If  this is Jonathan’s first exposure to this virus, the antibody type present FIRST would be______, if this is Jonathan’s second exposure to the virus, the antibody type present FIRST would be_________.
a.       Both IgM and IgG at the same time ; IgG
b.       IgM ;  IgG
c.        IgG ;  IgM
d.       IgG ;  IgG and IgM at the same level
e.        IgG ;  IgG

15.    _________________________ - In a second exposure, what cell will be active in the lymph node that was NOT participating in the first exposure response?

16.    If Jonathan begins to feel a little tired, and has very little appetite, he is probably in the ________ stage of disease.
a.       Incubation
b.       Decline
c.        Minimum stationary
d.       Prodromal
e.        Acute

17.    _______________________ -What term is used to describe this “blah” feeling, with lack of energy and appetite?



Christie suspects that her ex-boyfriend, the evil scientist Yosef Bondee, is plotting to kill her by infecting her with Francisella tularensis.  She is concerned about how dangerous it could be to her and her family, and wants to know how the organism would actually kill her.

18.    If this organism is a peritrichous streptobacillus, this means that it would look like:
a.       A string of pearls, with a single string connecting them extending on each end
b.       A hershey’s kiss, with the paper label sticking up out of one end
c.        A pair of shoes, arranged heel to toe, with the shoelaces dangling from each shoe
d.       A chain of hairy link sausages
e.        A dog rope toy, with a knot in the middle, and frayed ends 

19.    _______________Name the motility structure used by this peritrichous bacterium.

20.    _______________ What word describes the general and eventual movement of such bacteria towards positive stimuli?

21.    _____________During a “tumble”, in what direction would the motility structure be moving?

22.    If Christie’s research tells her that this organism is gram positive, then she knows the cell wall must:
a.       Have two layers to it
b.       Contain significant amounts of lipid within the layers
c.        Contain techoic acids
d.       Contain endotoxin A
e.        Be absent

23.    ______________________ - Give the unique macromolecule found in ALL bacterial cell walls, but nowhere else in nature.

24.    ______ - Name the three subunits of this molecule in all bacterial cells (letters are fine for 2 of the 3)

25.    ______

26.    ________________


27.    Since it is gram positive, which of the following toxin types could NOT be produced by this organism:
a.       Enterotoxins
b.       Endotoxins
c.        Exotoxins
d.       Cytotoxins
e.        Neurotoxins

28.    If the toxins produced cause increased capillary permeability and peristalsis of the intestines the toxin would be:
a.       Both an enterotoxin and an exotoxin
b.       Both a cytotoxin and an exotoxin
c.        Both a neurotoxin and an endotoxin
d.       Both an enterotoxin and an endotoxin
e.        Both a cytotoxin and an endotoxin

29.    ____________________If Yosef sends Christie a rose, and she is infected through a cut from a contaminated thorn, then what term describes the role of the thorn?

30.    ____________________ If she is infected through a thorn, is the pathogen transmitted directly or indirectly?


31.    _______________________If the Francisella organism can double in number every 20 minutes, then 20 minutes is its?

32.    When the Francisella is doubling rapidly, the bacterial growth curve stage would be ______, and the stage of disease in Christie’s body would be ______.
a.       Maximum stationary, acute
b.       Minimum stationary, decline
c.        Exponential death, convalescence
d.       Maximum stationary, prodromal
e.        Exponential growth, acute

33.    While the Francisella is contained within the area of skin where it entered, the infection is ________, and the enzyme used to keep it in that one location would be ________.
a.       Systemic, leucocidin
b.       Local, coagulase
c.        Chronic, protease
d.       Acute, leucocidin
e.        Systemic, streptokinase

34.    ________________If the bacteria are inside her cells, which level 2 defense cells would effectively kill the infected cells?


35.    In level 3 defenses, antibodies attacking the toxins would use ________, while loose bacteria would be best attacked by _________.
a.       agglutination  ;   T-cytotoxic cells triggering opsonization
b.       neutralization ;  T-cytotoxic cells causing membrane attack complex
c.        opsonization ;  T-cytotoxic cells triggering opsonization
d.       complement activation ;  antibodies causing neutralization
e.        neutralization  ;  antibodies triggering opsonization

36.    If Christie is prescribed tetracycline for her skin infection, it would affect bacterial protein synthesis and not human protein synthesis because:
a.       Humans do not produce  new proteins during the life of the adult cell
b.       Humans do not produce as many new proteins that bacteria do, so the effect will be minimal
c.        Tetracycline does not enter human cells, but does enter bacterial cells
d.       Human ribosomes are larger than bacterial ribosomes
e.        Tetracycline would actually affect both human and bacterial protein synthesis at the same level

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Lisa is worried that she may have been infected by a sexually transmitted disease.  She knows that one of her partners has AIDS, and she thinks he may also have one of the Hepatitis viruses as well.  Lisa is also worried about her overall immune system health, which she suspects is somewhat low.

37.    If Lisa has been infected with the virus that causes AIDS, which of the following would contribute to the ease of infection.
a.       She is a woman, contracting the disease from an infected man
b.       She is younger than her partner
c.        She was menstruating while she had unprotected sex with the man
d.       She had both oral and vaginal sex with her partner
e.        She kissed her partner in addition to having sex with him

38.    _____________________ - Which body fluid has the highest viral load?

39.    If Lisa has been infected with the virus that causes AIDS, she has been infected with ____, and she could get ______ if she is also infected with _____.
a.       HIV-2, Kaposi’s sarcoma, HPV
b.       HIV-1, Kaposi’s sarcoma, HIV-2
c.        SIV, Burkitt’s lymphoma, HIV-1
d.       HIV-2, Burkitt’s lymphoma, HHV-4
e.        HIV-1, Kaposi’s sarcoma, HHV-8

40.    ________________ - Name the cancer-causing gene that contributes most to malignancy.

41.    If Lisa’s partner actually has AIDS, then he must be in stage ____ of the disease, which is determined by_________.
a.       One, severity of symptoms
b.       Two, # of virus particles detected
c.        Three, # of opportunistic infections over the past year
d.       Four, # of viral host cells left
e.        Five, severity of symptoms

42.    Which of the following would NOT be a common opportunistic infection in AIDS
a.       Mycobacterium aviium complex
b.       Yeast infections
c.        Herpes infections
d.       Hepatitis infections
e.        Cryptosporidium diarrhea

43.    ________________________ Opportunistic pathogens are able to cause disease because the infected person is? (hint: immune system not working optimally)




44.    Which of the following retroviral proteins is correctly paired with its function in the life cycle of the AIDS virus?
a.       Protease:  cuts peplomer proteins apart from one another
b.       Integrase:  attaches viral DNA to host DNA
c.        Reverse transcriptase: makes viral RNA from viral DNA
d.       Gp-120: allows release of baby virus progeny
e.        Hemagglutinin: attachment of virus to host cell

45.    Which of the anti-retroviral drugs below act on the same stage of the viral life cycle?
a.       Base analogues and protease inhibitors
b.       Fusion inhibitors and base analogues
c.        Protease inhibitors and fusion inhibitors
d.       Integrase inhibitors and fusion inhibitors
e.        Reverse transcriptase inhibitors and base analogues

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Louis Pasteur was important in the development of many areas of microbiology.  Specifically, he advanced our knowledge of vaccine production, as well as the effect of microorganisms in causing disease.

46.    __________________ What process of weakening pathogens to create vaccines did he develop?

47.    If such a weakened bacterial pathogen suddenly regains the ability to cause disease, which of the following would be a possible explanation?
a.       Vertical gene transfer, such as conjugation, allowed it to acquire virulence genes
b.       Horizontal gene transfer, such as binary fission, allowed it to regain the strength it had before weakening
c.        Vertical gene transfer, such as transduction, allowed viruses to carry genes into the weakened pathogen
d.       Horizontal gene transfer, such as transformation, allowed the pathogen to suck up desired genes from others
e.        Spontaneous generation of virulence factors, such as capsule formation, allowed the weakened pathogen to strengthen

48.    Use of a weakened pathogen as a vaccine has some drawbacks, including:
a.       Multiple shots are required for full protection from disease
b.       Adjuvants must be used to amplify the immune response to the vaccine
c.        Some individuals could actually GET the disease from the vaccine
d.       The allergic reaction associated with receiving the vaccine may be life-threatening
e.        The process of weakening the pathogen may inadvertently INCREASE its virulence

49.    Which of the following is true of Pasteur’s effect on the theories of the cause of diseases:
a.       He proposed the germ theory of disease, but Koch proved it
b.       He proved the germ theory of disease, after Jenner proposed it
c.        He proposed the germ theory of disease after his experiments with S-shaped flasks in a competition
d.       He was “scooped” by the proposal of the germ theory by Koch, Pasteur’s research was slower
e.        Pasteur was the primary scientist who supported the miasma theory of disease, which was disputed by Koch

50.    _____________________ What disease was the very FIRST vaccine developed to protect against?


 

Vaccine type
Effectiveness (high  to  low) & why
Risk (high to low) & why
Whole cell attenuated


Whole cell killed


Soluble Subunit


Recombinant whole cell attenuated


Recombinant whole cell non-pathogen


Recombinant soluble subunit




Review Sheet for Final Test:


  1. Differentiate between HIV disease and AIDS.  Describe the symptoms of each stage of HIV disease.
  2. Give the top 5 methods of transmitting HIV-1.  Give 5 activities with a very low chance of transmitting the virus.
  3. Draw the HIV-1 viral structure, and illustrate the life cycle of the virus within the host cells.
  4. Differentiate between the five categories of anti-HIV drugs.  Tell what stage of the HIV-1 life cycle each interrupts.


Review Questions on Influenza

  1. What are the three basic types of influenza?  Which of the three is involved in worldwide pandemics?  Which is mainly involved in small, localized epidemics?  Which one rarely causes human disease?

  1. Describe or draw the structure of Influenza type A. Relate the naming of subtypes to viral structure, and other factors involved in naming subtypes.

  1. What strain(s) of influenza is(are) found in the flu shot administered each year?  Why do you need a new shot every year?  Why is it possible to get the flu, even if you receive the vaccination, but NOT possible to get the flu FROM the shot?

  1. What are antigenic shift and antigenic drift?  Why do these two processes make influenza more dangerous?  Which process involves a greater increase in virulence of the virus to humans?

  1. Which animals (including humans) may share flu viruses easily?  Which animals rarely share flu viruses?  Which animals are considered to be reservoirs of human flu viruses?

  1. What is the scientific designation (name) of the particularly dangerous avian influenza strain now occurring in birds and rare human cases?  What mutation is feared that would make it more dangerous to human populations?

  1. What problems exist with making a vaccine for this avian influenza strain?






Allergic Reactions The immune response overclocked…  


Allergy-producing antigens = ________________

(In some people) these trigger production of __________ antibodies

Which bind to 3 cell types: (remember 2 from inflammation + 1 new)




These 3 cells are found within all epithelium/endothelium, and contain granules of _____________________________________.


Sensitization: (Leading up to first allergic reaction) Fig. 18.1a
critical number of antibodies found on above cells’ surfaces

Cell is “______________________________”


person is sensitized

Multiple exposures usually required to reach this number of antibody molecules per cell



During allergic reaction:  Fig. 18.1b

Allergen causes binds to____________ portions of cells and causes degranulation (release of chemicals within vesicles in cells)


Release of granule chemicals (and therefore symptoms) may be local (poison ivy, “hay” fever) or systemic (anaphylactic reaction to bee sting) 

Effects of degranulation:   Table 18.1

    1. General _____________________


    1. Smooth muscle ______________________:  causes


3.      capillaries _________________, and become __________________


4.      __________________ secretion





Why do we have allergies?







Use of Immunology – Vaccine Production      Table 17.3
Why are vaccines given if not 100% safe?

Example:  Measles, Mumps, Rubella
Risks associated with disease:


Risks associated with vaccine:




Vaccine Production    (PRINT OUT and complete Vaccine Type Comparison Chart)


Whole cell vaccines:  _________________injected into your body

Attenuated = ______________

Effectiveness and why:



Risk level:


Killed or inactivated vaccines:
Effectiveness and why:



Risk level:


Soluble antigens (subunits): ________________ injected into your body

Effectiveness and why:



Adjuvants

Risk level:

Recombinant vaccines:  created by_____________________   Fig. 17.2

Attenuated (pathogen):

Effectiveness and why:



Risk level:

Whole cell (non pathogen):
Effectiveness and why:



Risk level:



Soluble subunit:
Effectiveness and why:



Risk level:




Newest (coming soon?) vaccine type:

Common vaccines used today:  Table 17.2

Topic 8a: HIV Disease and AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)



Global Impact of HIV / AIDS:




Origin of HIV-1

Probably entered humans from similar___________________ virus




in ____________________(geographical area) around ___________ (year)




–What activity probably led to species-jumping?



–What caused the virus to spread beyond small, contained outbreaks to become epidemic and then pandemic?








Structure of HIV-1 (Box p. 726)

Genome: __________ identical (duplicate) strands of ____________.


Enzymes:
1-


2-


3-


3 surrounding layers:
Capsid


Layer of ___________________ proteins


Envelope (plasma membrane taken from _______________________)


2 proteins make up peplomers:

–Head =

–Stalk =





HIV-1 Life Cycle (Fig. 25.19)

1- ATTACHMENT  (Fig. 25.20)

Virus attaches to host cell by which peplomer part:


Host cell must have which 2 receptor molecules on its surface:



Host cell types are mainly:

1- 


2-

includes fixed cells such as:

3-





2-PENETRATION

Takes place by _____________________ of viral envelope and host cell surface

Peplomer component which facilitates this:



(A)Drug types which interferes with attachment and/or penetration:





3- REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION  (Fig. 25.17)

Viral genome ( __________) transcribed to complementary viral ____________ using ________________ enzyme.


(B)Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Base analogue): interferes with this step by:  (Fig. 10.7)






(C) Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor:  interferes with this step by:







4- INCORPORATION

Integration of viral DNA into host cell genome using ___________________ enzyme.



(D)_______________ inhibitor drugs block incorporation



5- SYNTHESIS

Transcription of incorporated viral DNA into viral ____________ .

Newly made strands produced are used as

1-________________ copies for new viruses


2-___________________ to be translated into proteins


___________and _______proteins (peplomer parts) are produced in cytoplasm and immediately go to cell membrane

____________________ and ________________ enzymes

Other proteins made in large multi-proteins to be cut into small proteins with protease later

–Final enzyme ________________

–capsid building blocks =_______________

–stabilizing proteins =_________________



6- ASSEMBLY
All viral components move to _________________________


7-RELEASE (BY ___________________)


envelope and peplomers wrapped around multiprotein and genome as virus leaves




(6B-ASSEMBLY COMPLETED) Maturation

After leaving host cell, the large multi-proteins are cut into individual proteins and folded to take their active form by the enzyme

______________________. 


(E) Drug type _____________ inhibitors prevent the cutting of this large protein



------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Progression of HIV Disease    Fig. 25.21

Stage one: occurs ____________________ after infection


Symptoms are :


What is happening to CD-4 cells:



Stage two:  occurs __________________ after infection

Symptoms are:


What is happening to CD-4 cells:




Stage three:  occurs __________________ after infection

Symptoms are:


What is happening to CD-4 cells:



–_______________________ infections begin

Examples:







Stage four: (also called _______________) occurs __________________ after infection

What is happening to CD-4 cells:



Symptoms include:








Why HIV/AIDS is unusual:

Why no vaccine:




Transmission depends upon many factors:




Transmission of HIV
(Ranked in order of likelihood of infection)
Topic 8b: Influenza


Influenza viruses
Type A:

Type B:

Type C:




Structure of Type A  (Box. p. 736)
Genome:


Enveloped

Two important peplomer types:
Hemagglutinin
Function:

Blocked by drugs:

Neuraminidase
Function:

Blocked by drugs:



Why do you need a new shot every year?
The viruses change!


HA –

NA –

We identify flu viral types by:


Flu “shot” is:

Flu-mist vaccine is:



3 Viral types seen in annual seasonal vaccines are:





Two means of genetic change in flu viruses:  Fig. 25.38
Antigenic Drift



Antigenic Shift



Connections between human / pig / bird flu viruses:







Why is the new H5N1 bird flu virus of concern?





Why is the new H1N1 swine flu virus of concern?






Where do flu viruses live between epidemics?
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